PART ONE OF AMAZING SPECIES: INDESTRUCTIBLE ORGANISMS

Hey everybody so its been a while since my last post, but I'm back now. There are millions of species on planet earth, some big,

African Elephant and Blue Whale

some small

Ladybug and Humming Bird

some fast, and some slow.

Galapagos Tortoise, Cheetah, Peregrine Falcon

For today however, lets focus on some lesser known species. These organisms may not be as flashy as others but to paraphrase a certain famous Osteichthyes, they just keep swimming (or crawling or whatever).


These are the creatures who will still be doing their thing long after all of us "higher" lifeforms have kicked the bucket. (and no I'm not talking about the cockroach)

Lungfish

Queensland Lungfish (Neoceratodus forsteri)

There are several extant orders of lungfish scattered across most of the world. Lepidosireniformes in particular are split between the families, Lepidosirenidae (South American lungfish) and Protopteridae (African lungfish). These fish are capable of some incredible feats of endurance. As they are primarily found in shallow, anoxic swamps which can experience periods of drought these fish have evolved to breathe air. Their air bladder has become essentially a "lung" and their heart is even capable of circulating oxygenated and deoxygenated blood separately to separate parts of their bodies. The South African lungfish has taken this resistance to drought to the extreme, and has been recorded as surviving 4 YEARS out of water! It achieves this miraculous feat by burrowing itself into the mud at the bottom of its swamp and wrapping itself in a cocoon of mud. It then enters a hibernation like state of suspended animation during which its metabolism is reduced to almost 1/60th of its normal rate to reduce waste production.

Clip of Lungfish from BBC Documentary

Bdelloidea

Bdelloidea

Bdelloidea is a class of microscopic, asexual organisms which inhabit a range of freshwater habitats around the world. There are more that 450 classified species of Bdelloidea which comprise a genetic lineage approximately 25 million years old. These organisms have survived that long in large part due to their remarkable durability. They, like the lungfish, are capable of surviving prolonged desiccation; in their case Bdelloideas have been shown to "resurrect" following 9 years without water. They do this by preemptively dehydrating themselves in a process known as anhydrobiosis. Bdelloideas remain in a dormant state until the surrounding conditions are favorable enough to awaken them. Not only does this state allow them to endure long droughts, the stress of desiccation and re-hydration actually improves their fitness and fecundity.

As asexual organisms, Bdelloidea are susceptible to a major evolutionary hurdle not experienced by sexually reproducing creatures. According to a hypothesis of co-evolution known as the Red Queen Hypothesis, asexual species are especially vulnerable to rapidly evolving parasites and pathogens. This is due to asexual species being unable to quickly alter their genotypes to combat rapid parasite evolution. However, Bdelloidea have several characteristics which circumvent this. Firstly they can survive desiccation which would kill most parasites and pathogens. Secondly, while in their dehydrated form they are easily carried away by winds, and can form new colonies elsewhere if favorable conditions are present. Finally Bdelloidea have been shown to utilize horizontal gene transfer upon re-hydration. This has allowed them to steal genetic material from bacteria, fungi, and plants nearby (~10% of their genome is comprised of this stolen DNA). There is no consensus at this point as to how or why Bdelloidea perform this gene theft.

Bdelloidea rotifers

One final benefit of the Bdelloideas incredible anhydrobiotic state is the remarkable defense it provides from harmful radiation. Studies performed on two species of Bdelloideas (Adineta vaga and Philodina roseola) have shown they posses an extraordinary resistance to ionizing radiation and the ability to efficiently repair double stranded DNA breaks. Researchers have suggested that these abilities are likely a result of the desiccation resistance adaptations.

Hydra

Hydra

Remember those stories you heard as a kid about how if you cut a worm in half it would grow into two worms? Pretty cool right? Unfortunately for worms it isn't true so we should probably stop telling people that. There are creatures with tremendous regenerative powers. Some sea stars can regrow their entire bodies as long as at least 1/5th of their head remains intact, and sponges/sea cucumbers/flat worms can in fact reproduce by being divided into small sections. However, the Hydra surpasses them all. This genus of tiny, freshwater creatures possess regenerative capabilities rivaling its namesake.

The Hydra fight from Disney's Hercules

While the Hydra of legend would grow two heads to replace each that was lost, the real Hydra goes even further in its ability to survive dismemberment. These organisms have the ability to completely reconstitute their bodies after being chopped, diced, sliced, and smashed into a pile of goo. The key to their incredible regeneration is their specialized "command cells". Rather than a traditional brain Hydra use these "command cells" to instruct other cells in their bodies. Following being turned into a puddle all they need to reform is for 5-20 of these "command cells" to remain intact in order for them to instruct the destroyed cells to reform into the Hydra. Technau et al. (2000) showed that this small group of cells would signal the surrounding cells to reform into a new Hydra in less than 96 hours. While that may seem like a long time remember its still faster than you could reform after being turned into hamburger.

Sound familiar? Yes. Hydras are elves.

This regenerative power of the Hydra gives rise to an additional remarkable ability. They do not age. That's right, Hydra are biologically immortal. Their stem cells have can renew themselves indefinitely. This is incredible because it means that unless some outside force kills them they will live forever.

Tardigrade

Tardigrade aka: Water Bear

While you may think you've seen some incredible, indestructible creatures so far, to quote Bachman-Turner Overdrive "You ain't seen nothing yet!". Here we come at last to the end, and what do we find here? The Tardigrades otherwise known as Water Bears. Tardigrades are an entire phylum of microscopic, eight legged, water dwelling, segmented creatures which are found in virtually every environment and habitat on the planet. From the bottom of the oceans to the tops of mountain ranges and the frozen wastelands of Antarctica to the sweltering jungles of the Amazon there is nowhere on Earth you can not escape the Tardigrades.
So far on this list we've covered organisms which can survive extraordinary periods of dehydration and being smashed into tiny pieces. We've met fish which bury themselves in mud for a decade and creatures which do not age. However, the Tardigrades put them all to shame.

Tardigrades can/are:

Perform cryptobiosis, essentially stopping their metabolism dead. Tardigrades can reduce their metabolism to below 0.01% of its normal function. Not only are they capable of basically stopping their bodies from functioning, but they can do it in multiple ways. They can undergo anhydrobiosis (caused by lack of water, like the Bdelloidea), cryobiosis (in response to reduced temperatures), osmobiosis (when their water becomes hyper-saturated with solute), or anoxybiosis (when there is a lack of oxygen). Tardigrades can survive in this state, referred to as a tun, for more than 5 years. They have also been reported to undergo chemobiosis (a response to high levels of toxins in the environment) but this has not been confirmed.

Survive a greater range of temperatures than any other creature on earth; from -272 C (almost absolute zero, ~1 K) to 151 C (-458 F - 304 F).

Withstand the vacuum of space as well as the crushing depths of the ocean floor. Some species can survive ~6000 atmospheres of pressure, which is almost six times greater than the pressure found at the bottom of the Marianas Trench.

Dehydrate from ~85% water to ~3% water body composition. They can survive in this dehydrated state for at least a decade, although there are reports of limb movement (not generally considered survival) after 120 years!

Incredibly resilient to radiation. They can survive doses of ionizing radiation nearly 1000 times the lethal dose for most other organisms. This has been attributed to their ability to dehydrate which reduces the reactants for the radiation. However, they have also been found to be remarkably resilient while hydrated, due in large part to their incredibly efficient ability to repair their DNA.

Live in the vacuum of space, unaided for up to 10 days. They are the only organism we know of that can survive the pressure, lack of oxygen, and immense radiation of space for a significant length of time.

Tardigrades, courtesy of Cosmos: A Space Odyssey

It seems that the only way to kill these unstoppable creatures is through mechanical pressure (squish them). That however becomes a little difficult as they are microscopic, and live in water. Have you ever tried stomping on something in a puddle? Unless its sitting on the bottom too dense/heavy for the water to lift its really freaking hard.

So how did Tardigrades become the unkillable monsters of the micro-world? Researchers believe that it is their ability to perform horizontal gene transfer (HGT). As we mentioned earlier with the rotifers, this is the ability to steal genes from other organisms in this case mainly bacteria. This most likely happens as a result of the Tardigrades dehydrating and re-hydrating themselves. When they dehydrate they break down their DNA, then upon re-hydration they are susceptible to sucking up foreign matter and DNA. Combine these facts with their previously stated remarkable capacity for DNA repair, and viola freaky new Frankenstein's Monster DNA. One species of Tardigrade had its genome sequenced by researchers from the University of North Carolina. They found that a full 6th of its genetic material (17.5%) was taken from other organisms mainly bacteria (Archea). They also found that the Tardigrades use this "stolen" DNA during times of stress which indicates that at least part of their legendary durability is due to their ability to absorb genetic material from others. Basically the more resilient you are to drying out, the more material you can absorb which in turn makes you more resilient to drying out, and so on etc. The researchers concluded by saying that the species they investigated, Hypsibius dujardini, is actually kind of a wuss compared with other species, and that the genomes of its hardier relatives may show even greater percentages of foreign DNA.

Cosmos: A Space Odyssey

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Otterly unbelievable!

So I realized the other day that I've named this blog "thought you otter know" and its been 12 posts so far with no otters! [Except for this brief mention during the tool usage post] Well today that all changes. Today I'm going to attempt to convince you that otters are possibly the greatest animals on the planet.

Baby sea otter held at the Monterey Bay Aquarium

after being found orphaned on the beach.

And done.

Just kidding. As adorable and amazing as that was there is so much more to these furry balls of walking "awws". So here are some general facts about otters followed by one or two of my favorite species.

There are 13 extant species of otters found in various corners of the globe in a variety of habitats from the semi-aquatic to the fully marine. They range in size from the relatively tiny, Oriental small clawed otter (Amblonyx cinerea) to the absolutely massive, by otter standards, giant river otter (Pteronura brasiliensis).

Left: Oriental small clawed otter (Amblonyx cinerea). The smallest of the otter species it grows to between 70-100 cm of which approximately 1/3 is its tail.
Right: Giant river otter (Pteronura brasiliensis). The largest of the otters, at least by length, they can grow up to 1.7 m long (over 5 1/2 feet).

All otter species are members of the subfamily Lutrinae within the family Mustelidae which contains all weasel species and their relatives.

Various Mustelidae (Clockwise from left): American marten, ferret, wolverine, "Pepper" (otter), honey badger

A group of otters is referred to variously as a bevy, family, lodge, romp, or when in the water a raft. All species are amphibious to some degree and so fish is a staple of the otter diet for the most part, although some species supplement this with frogs, crabs, shellfish, or small mammals and birds.

Sea otter using a rock to smash open clams.

Sea Otter, Enhydra lutris

Sea otters are the "odd man out" of the Lutrinae family. Not only are they the heaviest otter species, and in fact the heaviest of all the weasel family. They are also the only otter capable of living their entire lives without leaving the water. Found along the Pacific coasts of North America and Asia these otters are renowned for their pelts. They have the densest fur of any animal, with approximately 150,000/cm squared (~1,000,000 per square inch). In comparison chinchillas, with the densest fur of any terrestrial animal, have on average 24,000/cm squared (~155,000 per square inch). While their incredibly thick fur may help protect sea otters from the cold of the Pacific it also nearly led to their extinction with poachers drastically reducing their numbers during the 18 and 19th centuries. When the Treaty for the Preservation and Protection of Fur Seals (which included a moratorium on sea otter harvesting) was signed in 1911 by Russia, Japan, Great Britain on behalf of Canada, and the US population estimates ranged from only 1,000-2,000 individuals. Since then they have rebounded to ~125,000 individuals worldwide (as of 2012), but they are still listed as Endangered by the IUCN Red List.

Sea otters are a classic example of a keystone species. This means that their removal from an environment or ecosystem would have a much greater impact than their size and numbers would suggest. For example, kelp forests are prime marine real estate. They provide a 3-dimensional environment for organisms to live in, hide from predators, feed on, etc. These forests are anchored to the sea floor by the kelp's holdfast (like the roots of a tree), and these holdfasts are food for many benthic organisms such as sea urchins. While there are sea otters present they regulate the urchin population, however, if you remove the sea otters the urchin population explodes. This leads to the destruction of the kelp forest as the urchins destroy the holdfasts quicker than new kelp can settle and grow. Therefore without sea otters the entire ecosystem is destroyed as shown in this video from the PEW Charitable Trusts:

The importance of sea otters.

European Otter, Lutra lutra

The European otter, also known as the Eurasian otter or the Old World otter, has the widest range of all the otter species. They span three continents (Europe, Africa, Asia) from Ireland to China, and as far north as Scandinavia down to North Africa and South-East Asia. This species mainly lives in freshwater, but can be found along the coast although they require freshwater regularly to clean their coats. These otters are also highly territorial along sex lines, meaning that male-female territories may overlap, but never male-male or female-female.

Giant River Otter, Pteronura brasiliensis

As mentioned earlier giant river otters, as their name suggests, are the largest of the otters and in fact the largest of any Mustelidae (in terms of length, as mentioned sea otters are the heaviest). They are also strongly social species, with family groups ranging from 2-20 individuals held together by a main breeding pair. Their social ties allow them to work and hunt together successfully. They are known as ariranha in Brazil which translates to water jaguar, and in Spanish they are lobo del rio, or river wolves. The comparisons suggested by these names are well earned as this video shows:

Clip from BBC 2 documentary showing a family of giant

river otters attacking and dispatching a caiman.

These otters are apex predators, which is no easy task in the Amazon. Their diet consists mainly of fish including catfish and piranhas, but they have also been known to take down caimans and anacondas! When full grown these otters have no serious natural predators (although occasional predation by jaguars, and anacondas has been suggested, but never observed) and so their greatest threats come from humans (what a shock). They are poached for their fur, and are threatened by habitat destruction. The IUCN Red List classifies them as Endangered due to the threats facing them which are compounded by the difficulties to recover and re-colonization (they are a slow growing, late breeding species).


Well I think that's probably enough otter talk for one day. I will leave you with a couple cute videos of otters (the last one I took myself at an otter sanctuary near Plymouth in the UK).

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What a bunch of suckers

So recently I made a blog about tool usage in non-human animals to show the wide range of intelligence in different species. However, there is one species, or more accurately group of species, that I didn't mention in that post which cannot be overlooked when discussing the most intelligent animals on the planet.

Left-Right: Giant Pacific Octopus, Enteroctopus dofleini; Flamboyant Cuttlefish, Metasepia pfefferi; and the Hawaiian Bobtail Squid, Euprymna scolopes.

The octopus, squid, and cuttlefish pictured above are all Cephalopods, and are in fact grouped together in the subclass Coleoidea. Cephalopods are considered the most intelligent invertebrate group for several reasons. Firstly the brain-body mass ratio, a common rough estimate of intelligence in species, is higher among octopuses and cuttlefish than any other invertebrate. Bigger brains relative to body size is considered a good estimate of animal intelligence, although the estimation is imprecise and not fool-proof. Another example of Cephalopod intelligence is their tool use, which I touched on in other species previously. The veined octopus, Amphioctopus marginatus, has been observed collecting discarded coconut shells on the sea floor, cleaning them out, and then carrying them awkwardly away.

Veined octopus, Amphioctopus marginatus, carrying coconut shells to use as shelter.

This behaviour might seem odd at first, but all becomes clear when the octopus settles down and constructs a "tent" out of the shells for protection. This collection and preparation of objects, as well as the continued and clearly conscious use of them for a specific purpose fulfills all the requirements of tool usage which, as discussed in previous posts, is a major indicator of intelligence. While some of you may be surprised at the intellect of these humble molluscs, their dexterity, and curiosity have been documented several times before. Octopuses held in captivity have been known to break bits of their tanks causing aquariums to flood, spray feeders with water, juggle tank mates, and smash aquarium tanks with rocks. There are also multiple stories (and you've probably all heard one of these) about octopuses escaping their tanks at night and visiting some of their fellow aquarium species. Specifically stories mention a nearby lobster tank which is invaded by the eight-legged adventurer who then proceeds to kidnap several lobsters. Aquarium staff are reported to return the next day and find they are missing lobsters. The stories go on to describe investigations into lobster thieves, added security measures, and the eventual discovery of the culprit in the act. Following examinations of the octopus's tank the remains of discarded lobsters are found secreted away beneath rocks.

Octopus displaying its dexterity, strength, and ingenuity by opening a jar while inside it.

Cuttlefish and other Cephalopods are renowned for their amazing, near instantaneous, color changing capabilities. While this ability is certainly beneficial for camouflage, it has also been adapted in some species of Cephalopod for use in communication. Species such as the Caribbean reef squid, Sepioteuthis sepioidea, which utilizes chromatophores, pigment rich cells, to flash color signals to other squid, usually as part of a courtship ritual. The squid can even send different signals to fellow squid on opposite sides simultaneously!

Sir David Attenborough discussing various amazing abilities of Cephalopods.

While these creatures are unquestionably intelligent scientists are just beginning to discover how smart they really are. Research has shown that octopuses have on average around 130 million neurons in their brain which doesn't seem like a lot when compared with the 100 billion in the human brain. However, two-thirds of the neurons in an octopus's body are spread throughout it's arms rather than concentrated in the cerebral cortex like vertebrates. In terms of total number octopuses actually have more neurons than several species of rats and mice. The location of the neurons in their arms is theorized to grant them the ability to operate all of their limbs independently, as they each have "a mind of their own" so to speak. Studies where researchers have severed a limb of an octopus (they can grow back calm down) have shown that the limbs not only move on their own, but will seize any item it "perceives" as food. This is similar to our reflex to drop anything which is too hot to avoid burning ourselves.

All in all Cephalopods are some of the most intelligent species on the planet ranking up there with dogs, mice, and even the great apes in some areas. Not bad for animals that are cousins with the clam. So I will leave you with two great videos of some True Facts About The Octopus and Cuttlefish courtesy of zefrank1 on Youtube.

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Black and White

Holy Shit! Have you guys seen this?

Albino Green Sea Turtle (Chelonia mydas)

GHOSTS ARE REAL! I'm kidding obviously, but seriously how adorable is that? Just when you thought baby turtles couldn't be cuter. But what's the story behind this crazy white turtle? Well first off it's not alone.

Various albino animals.

All of these animals are affected by a congenital condition known as albinism characterized by a reduction or lack of pigment in the skin, hair, scales, etc. as well as pink/blue eyes. Albinism is also found in humans and less commonly in plants where the chlorophyll in the plants is reduced. This negatively affects the plant's ability to photosynthesize which leads to reduced survivability. Albino animals also suffer from their reduced pigment as it can negatively affect their ability to camouflage, or reduce their protection from UV radiation. There have also been studies showing that albino animals have poor eyesight and hearing as well as reduced reproductive viability.

Now while albino animals are strange and eye-catching there is another pigment affecting condition that often gets overlooked. Did you know that these two animals are actually the same species?

Black "Panther" and Jaguar (Panthera onca)

The black panther, as it is commonly called, is actually a title used to describe any of the Panthera species affected by a condition known as melanism.

Top Row: Melanistic and normal jaguar (Panthera onca); Bottom Row: Normal and melanistic leopard (Panthera pardus)

Melanism is the opposite of albinism. While the latter is a condition resulting in the absence of pigment in the skin, hair, etc. the former is a condition which increases the amount of pigment produced. Additionally while albinism has several negative impacts, as described above, melanism is more commonly a beneficial condition. The darker pigmentation can grant greater camouflage capabilities to both predators and prey is many environments, especially at night. Melanism has also been linked to disease resistance in felines; with darker individuals appearing at higher latitudes and in environments where they would be disadvantaged camouflage-wise due to their ability to shake off viruses better than their "normal" coated cousins. Finally there is a wide range of species affected by melanism, from snakes, cats, squirrels, canines, and insects.

Various melanistic animals.

The incidences of this condition in insects are most famously linked to increased pollution from industrial development. For example the peppered moth, Biston betularia, was originally white which camouflaged it against the light colored lichen on the trees. However, with the rise of air pollution in the UK following the industrial revolution the lichen began to die off exposing the dark bark of the trees. This lead to a rise in melanism in the moths as the lighter colored individuals became more obvious to predators.

Peppered moth (Biston betularia) normal and melanistic varieties

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A craftsman is only as good as his tools

Clip from Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy tv series.

Words of wisdom from the late, great Douglas Adams. One of the identifiers, and markers of intelligence in a species is the use of tools. For a long time humanity assumed that it was the sole species to possess this trait. However, the creation and use of tools is a trait that has been documented in numerous species throughout the years. Here we shall discuss as many of them as I feel like typing about.

1. Primates

Ok this one is a bit of a cheat because so many of our closest genetic relatives have displayed a talent for tool creation and usage. So I'm going to briefly touch on several species of primates in no particular order.

First off is the most obvious, Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Chimps are one of our closest genetic relatives, along with Bonobos (Pan paniscus), sharing approximately 98.7% of our genetic code.

From Left: Chimpanzees, Human, Bonobos. Johnny Depp is 98.7% genetically identical to the animals on either side of him.

Chimps and bonobos have been documented crafting and using tools in the wild, but both species have a much higher tool usage rate when held in captivity. Tool usage in these species is widely varied with tools being developed to hunt, scavenge, collect honey and water, crush and chop fruits, nuts and vegetables, and for personal grooming.

Chimps using tools to fish out insects.

Another great ape species which utilizes branches and leaves as a remarkable variety of tools for a multitude of jobs is the Orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus and Pongo abelii). Orangutans have been observed to use tools for many functions similar to chimps and bonobos. They craft hunting and gathering tools, use leaves as gloves to grab thorny branches, and use leaves as napkins. They have even been shown to utilize leaves as megaphones, possibly to make themselves seem larger and more threatening to predators. However, they have also shown a trait that you might think is a uniquely human idea. They have been observed using tools to masturbate. Yeah you read that right. Orangutans fashion tools to help them "get off", and it's been seen in both male and female orangs. While this is certainly the most eye grabbing trait, orangs have also shown a remarkable ability to "ape" (hehehe) human tool use. In the wild orangutans have been observed copying humans spear fishing, and in captivity they have been taught to craft stone hand axes.

Orangutan attempting to spear fish.

Finally among the non-ape primate species the most notable are the capuchin monkeys. Capuchins are part of the new-world monkey subfamily Cebinae, and are split into two genuses, Cebus and Sapajus. Capuchins of both genus have shown a remarkable propensity towards stone tool use. They have been documented using a stone "hammer and anvil" to crush and crack open nuts, fruits and even oysters. However, this is not some innate ability of these monkeys. It can take up to 8 years for Capuchins to master the skills required to use these tools.

Clip from BBC Earth documentary showing Capuchin monkeys cracking

nuts. Narrated by the brilliant Sir David Attenborough.

Capuchins have also shown ingenuity by using stone tools to dig up roots and tubers, and "milking" the secretions of certain arthropods to use as insecticides.

2. Elephants

There are three extant species of elephant, the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), African bush elephant (Loxodonta africana), and African forest elephants (Loxodonta cyclotis). While these species are famed for their "infallible" memories and are considered among the most intelligent species on the planet, they are not often thought of as tool users. They make up for their lack of opposable digits through the use of their incredibly dexterous trunks. Elephants have been seen choosing, stripping and shaping sticks and branches for a variety of purposes. They create fly swatters, back scratchers, and toe cleaners. They have also shown foresight in their tool creation. Elephants have been observed digging holes which fill with water, then filling the hole with a wad of chewed bark to absorb the water, and covering the hole over with sand to prevent evaporation. This creates a cache of water for the elephant should it return later and need a drink. Elephants have also shown the ingenuity to use large rocks to crush electric fences, either shorting them out or breaking a hole for the elephant to walk through. In captivity Asian elephants will also use boxes in their enclosure as stepping stones to reach food placed purposefully out of reach.

Elephant chews stick to create tool for scratching.

3. Sea Otters!

I had to include this one. As you may have noticed from the background and the title of my blog I have a weak spot for otters. Now tool use is fairly uncommon in the animal kingdom, while it may not appear so from this blog so far, but it is even more unusual in the marine environment. Sea otters (Enhydra lutris) however, are one of the few species with documented tool use capabilities.

Sea Otter using rock on its belly to smash its prey.

I'm sure we're all familiar with the images and videos of sea otters holding the clam, or urchin on their belly and smashing it with a rock to open it. It turns out that sea otters also use rocks to remove their food from the sea bed and rocks it clings to. Otters hunting abalone (a type of marine snail) will often use rocks to bash the snail in an attempt to prize it from the rocks it is attached too. This is much harder than it sounds as the snails can grip the rock with a force equal to 4,000x its own body weight!

Once the otter has prized the snail from the rock (usually requiring several dives to achieve this) it must then break through the snail's hard shell. Recently a researcher from Monterey Bay Aquarium, Jessica Fujii, reported that her team had found that the rate of tool use in otters varies by location. Sea otters down south, off the California coast showed a much higher rate of tool use than those observed in Alaskan waters. Fujii said that this is due to the dominant prey species for these different populations of otters. While urchins are spiny and tough looking, they are actually much easier to break open than the abalone that otters hunt further south. This explains why Alaskan otters showed tool use while eating ~1% of the time compared with the ~16% usage rate by southern otters.

Sea otter using rock to smash open clams.

4. Dolphins

Finally we have come full circle. Here we find the species many consider to be the second most intelligent on the planet, the bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus). Dolphins are similar to elephants in that while the intelligence is much lauded, they are not considered prime examples of tool using species. However, dolphins have been observed using sponges to protect their rostrum as they hunt for fish along the sea floor. Genetic studies performed on dolphins in Shark Bay, Australia (where this behaviour has been documented) show that it stems from a single matriline (female lineage) with mother's apparently teaching the skill to their daughters. There are also reports of dolphins in this area using conch shells to scoop prey off the bottom making them easier for the dolphins to eat. Dolphins have, like Orangutans, also been documented masturbating in the wild. While perhaps not technically "tool use" a video does exist showing a river dolphin "using" a headless fish.

Bottlenose dolphins in Shark Bay using sponges to protect them while hunting.

Well that's all I have for this blog, thanks for checking it out. I hope you enjoyed the pictures and videos. Come back again soon, and check me out on The Imposter Podcast, run by a good friend of mine, Amir Fogel. Anyway thanks for stopping by!

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But wait there's more

Planets. What are they? How many are there? What are they plotting? These questions have plagued mankind for millennia. OK maybe not the last one, but still the quest to understand the mysteries of space and the movements of the planets has been a driving force behind scientific endeavour for thousands of years.

Solar system, music by Queensland Symphony Orchestra

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dkHMOW4mfgY

The first descriptions of the inner planets (Mercury and Venus) and the closest outer planets (Mars, Jupiter, Saturn) were made by ancient Babylonian astronomers around 4000 years ago. Uranus would not be discovered for another ~3800 years, in April of 1781. Neptune would follow relatively soon after in September, 1846. Finally Pluto would join the ranks of the planets following its discovery in January, 1930.

Diagram of the solar system.
http://spaceplace.nasa.gov/ice-dwarf/en/

The first explanations for the movements of the sun, moon, stars and planets throughout the night sky were developed approximately 2600 years ago with the creation of the geocentric model. There were many variations of this model throughout the ages but they all feature the Earth as the center of a revolving universe. These models were based on the observable fact that the sun, moon and stars all appear to circle the earth. An opposing theory was put forth approximately 300 years later which placed the sun at the center of the universe with all the planets, Earth included, revolving around it. This heliocentric model was disregarded, and often violently opposed by supporters of the geocentric model (particularly the Catholic Church and other religious bodies who believed, for obvious reasons, that the Earth and humanity were the center of creation) for hundreds of years. It wasn't until the reintroduction of this model in the 16th century by Nicolas Copernicus that it began to spread and overtake the old geocentric model. Eventually it was accepted that the planets, including Earth, did in fact orbit around the sun while various moons orbited their respective planets. The principle idea of the sun as the center of the universe was more easily discarded as advances in technology aided in the shift in scientific thought. Now we know that the sun is simply one star among the estimated 100-300 BILLION stars in our galaxy, the Milky Way. In turn our galaxy is only one among an estimated 225 BILLION galaxies in the observable universe. 

Monty Python's Galaxy Song from The Meaning of Life. Performed by Eric Idle

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=buqtdpuZxvk

However, today we are going to scale back and focus solely on the planets, dwarf planets, moons, asteroids, and various other satellites of our solar system. Our story opens on Pluto. Once the proud 9th and final planet in our solar system it has since fallen on hard times.

Sad Pluto the dog from Disney
http://www.disneyclips.com/imagesnewb/pluto3.html

76 years after its discovery Pluto was officially demoted from planet to dwarf planet on September 13, 2006. While Pluto is hardly the first stellar body to be reduced in status (Solar Bodies Previously Considered Planets) it is the most controversial (because it is the most recent). While many people were unhappy with Pluto's demotion (mainly due to sentimental reasons) the International Astronomical Union (IAU) officially finalized the criteria for planethood in a resolution ratified near the end of 2006. The resolution criteria read as follows:

'The IAU...resolves that planets and other bodies, except satellites, in the Solar System be defined into three distinct categories in the following way:

(1) A planet is a celestial body that (a) is in orbit around the sun, (b) has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape, and (c) has cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit.

(2) A "dwarf planet" is a celestial body that (a) is in orbit around the sun, (b) has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape, (c) has not cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit, and (d) is not a satellite

(3) All other objects, except satellites, orbiting the Sun shall be referred to collectively as "Small Solar System Bodies."'

The resolution continues by stating that according to the above definition Pluto is a "dwarf planet" and is placed into the new category, Trans-Neptunian Objects. Additionally planets and dwarf planets are two separate classes of objects despite the similarity in names, and so dwarf planets are not simply smaller planets.

Credit: by Karl Tate, SPACE.com contributor
http://www.space.com/18584-dwarf-planets-solar-system-infographic.html

This classification and ordering of the objects in our solar system is relevant because of a recent publication by Konstantin Batygin and Dr. Michael Brown. Dr. Brown was one of the leaders of the Pluto demotion movement in 2006. Now in the first 2016 issue of The Astronomical Journal, Batygin and he describe a new addition to the list of planets, the mysteriously titled Planet 9. While there is no direct evidence of this planet its existence can be inferred from the motion of several smaller objects in the Kuiper Belt. The Kuiper Belt is a ring of dwarf planets and small solar system bodies that orbit the sun at the outer edges of the solar system (similar to the Asteroid Belt between Mars and Jupiter). Specifically the researchers noted that a KBO (Kuiper Belt Object) named Sedna exhibited strange orbital characteristics. Aside from the extreme range (it takes 11,400 years to complete an orbit, 69 times longer than Neptune's ~165 years) it is one of several KBOs which share an almost identical perihelion (the point of orbit closest to the sun), both in angle and distance. Batygin & Brown calculated that the likelihood of these objects sharing the same angle and distance in their perihelion was approximately 0.007%. In light of this they determined that the most plausible explanation for this oddity was that Sedna and its contemporaries were being influenced by a large unseen object. This unknown planet has a mass ~10 times that of Earth and orbits the Sun approximately once every 20,000 years. Batygin and Brown have crowdsourced their observation team, hoping that some observatory in the world will be able to provide the visual confirmation of their, as yet, theoretical planet.

Credit: By Karl Tate, infographics artist
http://www.space.com/31671-planet-nine-discovery-explained-infographic.html

So while Pluto is out of luck with regards to planethood we may soon have a new 9th planet to take its place. Its just unfortunate that Pluto was demoted because how cool would it have been to name this new discovery Planet X! Anyway as always thanks for stopping by and be sure to come back soon!

Various Sci-Fi novels and films involving Planet X
(Clockwise from left): http://bookreviewbuzz.com/science-fiction-clouds-over-planet-x/
http://ufodigest.com/article/man-planet-x-science-fiction-movie-1951-review-links-and-comparison-real-planet-x
http://www.demonoid.pw/files/details/2478312/?load_bal=002014149902&show_files=1&page=2
http://www.sffaudio.com/review-of-brad-lansky-and-the-alien-at-planet-x/

Sources:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto#IAU_classification

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IAU_definition_of_planet

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet_Nine

http://time.com/4184942/planet-9-new-pluto-solar-system/

http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/0004-6256/151/2/22/pdf

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_discovery_of_Solar_System_planets_and_their_moons

http://www.skyandtelescope.com/astronomy-resources/how-many-galaxies/

http://www.universetoday.com/36610/how-many-galaxies-have-we-discovered/

Eye can see clearly now

As someone with absolutely terrible vision I can tell you glasses and contacts suck. Contacts are a pain to deal with, and can have disastrous consequences if you forget them.

*Warning Disturbing* Girl gets eyes eaten by parasite after leaving contact lenses in too long

Glasses aren't any better. They are expensive as hell, fragile, and irritating whenever you want to do anything active. Not to mention how annoying this is:

(Left): Fogged up glasses; (Right): Glasses in the rain
(Left): http://says.com/my/lifestyle/how-to-choose-cosmetic-contact-lenses-that-won-t-get-you-awkward-stares
(Right): http://www.cookdandbombd.co.uk/forums/index.php?topic=31571.0

For a long, long time there were no other options when it came to correcting vision. Even contact lenses are relatively new, especially compared with how long glasses existed as the sole option. Then came the advent of corrective eye surgery either using a microkeratome or lasers. How sci-fi is that by the way? Even though its commonplace it's still really cool that doctors can correct your vision by shooting lasers into your eyes. Also referred to as LASIK, laser-assisted in situ keratomileusis, this process involves reshaping the cornea to improve visual acuity.

http://www.123rf.com/photo_13819012_anatomy-of-the-eye.html

While this procedure has been shown to correct vision with a 92-98% success rate (based upon surveys of LASIK patients during March, 2008) there are a number of associated risks. Such risks and complications can include: dry eyes (usually temporary but can lead to dry eye syndrome if untreated), corneal scarring (1.44% incidence rate), retinal detachment (0.36% incidence rate), and vision loss due to infection (0.0001% incidence rate). As well around 5% of patients report vision regression later in life, most often becoming nearsighted which is standard for everyone once they reach about 40-45 years of age. So overall LASIK and other eye surgery techniques are still incredibly beneficial, although success is defined as correction to at least 20/40 vision (the minimum required to obtain a driver's license in the USA) and relatively risk free. Now however, there is a new technique which could consign LASIK and all previous vision correctives to the history books. That's right I'm talking about robot eyes.

Bender (Futurama) gasp!
http://memegenerator.net/instance/64773131

Finally the day we have all been dreaming of since we first saw Predator and the Terminator is upon us! We will soon be able to upgrade from puny, pathetic human vision to the far superior ROBOVISION!

Terminator vision:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YvRb9jZ9wFk

OK so I might have exaggerated a bit. The new procedure won't actually give you heat vision (yet). In fact it won't even give you 20/20 vision. No, it will give you 3x better than 20/20 vision! Developed by an optometrist from British Columbia, Dr. Garth Webb, the Ocumetics Bionic Lens surgically replaces the lens in your eye in a procedure taking approximately 8 minutes according to Dr. Webb. On top of the instant, and permanent eyesight correction, the new lens removes the risk of regression and prevents the development of cataracts. As of May, 2015 Dr. Webb and his team were waiting to begin animal trials, and hopefully following success there human trials. Optimistically the new lenses will be available in Canada within the next 2 years. Until that time however all we can do is wait, and hopefully see.


Sources: 
http://www.higherperspectives.com/superhuman-vision-1568738067.html?utm_source=cleo&utm_content=inf_10_34_2&tse_id=INF_2b54ac431b624851b5668fd39e897a41
http://www.medicaldaily.com/bionic-lenses-will-improve-eyesight-3-times-better-2020-vision-seeing-perfect-without-334824
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LASIK
http://www.nature.com/eye/journal/v21/n1/full/6702180a.html
http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=6305599
http://www.allaboutvision.com/visionsurgery/outcomes.htm
http://www.iflscience.com/health-and-medicine/girl-left-her-contacts-6-months-and-amoebas-ate-her-eyeballs

VeLIESiraptors!

Hey everybody, so last time I mentioned the original opinion that Jurassic Park is great. No one else has said that before right? Anyway today I want to talk about how Jurassic Park is a GIANT PACK OF LIES! So when Jurassic World was announced last year, or 2014 or whenever it was, there was a great deal of speculation, at least by me presumably by others as well about the look of the dinosaurs. It is common knowledge now that modern birds are descended from dinosaurs. Thomas Henry Huxley, a famous British biologist, proposed the idea shortly after the publication of Darwin's Origin of Species in 1859. However this hypothesis, based upon comparisons of Compsognathus and Archaeopteryx lithographica fossils, and similar claims were mostly disregarded for the next hundred years.

Left: Compsognathus, Right: Archaeopteryx lithographica

The discovery of Deinonychus antirrhopus in the 1960s reignited the debate due to the striking similarities with avian morphology. By the time Jurassic Park was released in the early 1990s most paleontologists accepted the theory, classifying all extinct species as "non-avian dinosaurs".

List of Non-Avian Dinosaur Species with evidence of feathers.
Velociraptor mongoliensis highlighted

This claim was still contested by some scientists who decried a lack of feathered dinosaurs in the fossil record. Discoveries of new fossils and reexaminations of previous finds have filled that void since then. At present over 40 species of "non-avian dinosaurs" have been found to show evidence of feathers. In fact many species have now had the color of their feathers described by researchers. Studies performed on Anchiornis huxleyi, a heavily feathered species dated from 161-151 mya, revealed that the molecular composition of the feathers was similar to eumelanin, a pigment found in cuttlefish. A similar study, performed on the fossils of extinct bats, showed that color could be determined by examining the shape of the melanosomes, cellular compartments that produce and store pigment. According to Jakob Vinther, the senior author of the study, meatball shaped melanosomes denote reddish pigments while sausage shaped pockets contain black pigments.

Great video showing some of the color changing abilities of the cuttlefish.
Cuttlefish manipulates melanin pockets in its body to change colors and camouflage.

Ok back to Jurassic Park. When you think of dinosaurs which one comes to mind first? Probably the Tyrannosaurus rex which is fair it's probably the most popular dinosaur in the world. But not far behind on that list is the Velociraptor. The terrifyingly intelligent and deadly raptors have been depicted as fast, scaly, killing machines in every iteration of the franchise. I mean just look at them:

Chris Pratt vs. the raptor pack, Jurassic World.

Who wouldn't crap their pants if they saw a pack of these things headed towards them, or tuned to see a head poking out of the trees? 

"Clever Girl" clip from Jurassic Park.

There's only one problem, THAT is not a Velociraptor! THIS is a Velociraptor:

Velociraptor mongoliensis compared with other Dromaeosaur species.

Oh sorry, let me make that a little clearer:

Velociraptor compared with other Dromaeosaur species.

Yeah that one. Lets quickly cover the differences between the movie version and the reality. Firstly

Velociraptor mongoliensis size comparison to a human.

it's covered in feathers, as evidenced in the fossil record. Secondly and more importantly, it's tiny (relatively) approximately 2.07m (6.8ft) long and 0.5m (1.6ft) tall. On top of this there is no record of Velociraptors hunting in packs, and their intelligence has been highly overstated by the films. True their brain size compared to their body was large for a dinosaur, but that is misleading. A different species, Troodon formosus, generally believed to be the smartest dinosaur based upon brain to body size ratio is still considered to have been less intelligent than most modern birds and mammals.

But why is the film version so massively different to actual Velociraptors? Simple, it was never meant to be a Velociraptor. In the 1990 novel by Michael Crichton and the following film adaptation the role of the Velociraptor was based upon a completely different dinosaur, Deinonychus antirrhopus. Crichton discussed Deinonychus at length with its discoverer, John Ostrom, and reportedly told him that he was going to use them in his novel, but that he was going to call them Velociraptors because "Its more dramatic".

Left: Deinonychus antirrhopus size comparison to a human. Right: Artist recreation D. antirrhopus

So there you have it. Jurassic Park is a pack of lies. I'd just like to leave you with this message: I love Jurassic Park. I think its a fun film. and Jeff Goldblum is fantastic. I like Jurassic World as well. Even the absolutely ridiculous T. rex and Velociraptor team up at the end was great, and the Mosasaurus looked incredible. Thanks for hanging around. See you guys next time!

Sources:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feathered_dinosaur

http://flyingdinosaurs.net/a-z-of-feathered-dinosaurs/
http://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/43881/title/Color-Clues-in-Dino-Fossils/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velociraptor
http://dinopedia.wikia.com/wiki/Velociraptor
http://www.todayifoundout.com/index.php/2010/07/everything-i-thought-i-knew-about-velociraptors-was-a-lie/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deinonychus
http://news.yale.edu/2015/06/18/yale-s-legacy-jurassic-world
http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dinosaurs/iq.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troodon
http://www.oldearth.org/curriculum/dinosaur/dinosaur_compsognathus.htm
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compsognathus
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/Archaeopteryx_lithographica_%28Berlin_specimen%29.jpg
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurassic_Park_(film)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurassic_World
http://screenrant.com/jurassic-world-trailers-velociraptors-chris-pratt/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YKRnEOUxZm0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GDwOi7HpHtQ